Tuesday, February 10, 2009
Venus
Venus in Color
The bluish hue of Venus is an effect of the colorization technique used to enhance subtle contrasts in cloud patterns and indicates that this image was taken through a violet filter. Features in the sulfuric acid clouds near the top of the planet's atmosphere are most prominent in violet and ultraviolet light. This image shows the east to west cloud banding and the brighter polar hoods . The features are embedded in winds that flow from east to west at about 370 kph (230 mph).
Impact Craters
Three large impact craters with diameters ranging from 37 km (23 mi) to 65 km (40 mi) are visible in the fractured plains. Features typical of meteorite impact craters are also visible. Rough radar-bright ejecta surrounds the perimeter of the craters; terraced inner walls and large central peaks can be seen. Crater floors appear dark because they are smooth and have been flooded by lava. Domes of probable volcanic origin can be seen in the southeastern corner. The domes range in diameter from 1-12 km (0.6-7 mi); some have central pits typical of volcanic shields or cones.
Bright Plains
Located along the left central edge of the image is a cluster of volcanic domes that ranges from 1.5 km (1 mi) to 7.5 km in diameter (5 mi). The domes and their deposits are located at the convergence of radar-bright lineaments that are interpreted to be faults and troughs. In some places the domes overlie the faults. The faults and troughs extend into the lower parts of the image where they terminate against dark plains deposits and are crosscut at right angles by additional faults. The relationship between these features indicates that multiple episodes of faulting and volcanism have occurred.
Ovda Regio
The tectonic fabric of this region of Ovda Regio trends predominantly east-west. The large radar-dark areas are probably tectonically formed basins that have been filled in by fluid lava flows, thus presenting a smooth surface to the Magellan radar system.
Ridges and Troughs
On this bright, lineated terrain Alpha Regio is a series of troughs, ridges, and faults running in every direction. The lengths of these features range from 10 km (6.3 mi) to 60 km (37 mi). The elevation of Alpha Regio varies over a range of 4 km (2.5 mi). Low-lying areas appear dark in the radar images and may be filled with lava. Volcanoes appear as bright spots on the smooth plains. Notice the large volcano in the upper right. At the center of this 35 km (22 mi) volcano is a caldera; its western edge appears to be either a debris flow or a lava flow. The black square represents missing data.
Highlands
Several tectonic events formed this complex terrain, which is part of the interior of Ovda Regio. An underlying fabric of ridges and valleys lies NE-SW. These ridges are spaced 10-20 km (6-12 mi) apart and may have been caused by compression of the crust at right angles to the ridge. The ridges are cut by bright features extending NW-SE. The largest valleys, particularly the 20 km (12 mi) wide valley extending across the image, were filled with dark material, probably lava. The complexity of Ovda Regio attests to a long history of tectonic deformation.
Eastern Lakshmi
Lava flows blanket the flat plains region of eastern Lakshmi. The dark flows most likely represent smooth flows similar to pahoehoe flows on Earth, while the brighter areas are rougher flows resembling Earth's aa flows. Three dark splotches mark the tops of these lava flows. Because of the thick atmosphere surrounding Venus, small impactors break up before they hit the surface. The fragments are deposited over the surface and produce the dark splotches seen here. Notice the splotch on the far right has a crater at its center, indicating that the impactor was not completely destroyed.
Lava flows
This mosaic highlights a system of east-trending, radar-bright and dark lava flows that collide with and breach a north-trending ridge belt (left of center). Upon breaching the ridge belt, the lava pooled, forming a radar-bright deposit approximately 100,000 square km (right side of image). The source of the lava is the Corona Derceto, which lies about 300 km (186 mi) west of the scene. The bright and dark bars extending from top to bottom are artifacts of image processing.
Coronas in Fortuna
Two large oval features can be seen in this image of Fortuna. On the left is Ba'het Patera, 230 km (138 mi) long and 150 km (90 mi) across. A portion of Onatah Corona, over 350 km (210 mi) in diameter, is visible on the right. Both features are surrounded by a ring of ridges and troughs. The central areas of the coronae contain radial fractures as well as volcanic domes and flows. Coronae may form due to the upwelling of hot material from deep in the interior of Venus. These two coronae may have formed at the same time over a single upwelling. The black strip represents missing data.
Lavinia Region
The bright area running from the upper right to the lower left may be part of a belt of ridges formed by compression and thickening of the upper layers of the planet. The area between the ridges suggests flooding by lava flows. The varied textures of the lava can be seen in the mottled appearance of the plains, which have been cut by the ridges; brighter, rougher flows are also quite common. The lighter area in the lower right corner is the northern extension of Mylitta Fluctus. The black strip represents missing
Arachnoids
Named by the Soviets for their spider and cobweb-like appearance, arachnoids are one of the more remarkable features found on Venus. They are 50 to 230 km (30 to 138 mi) diameter circular structures, with a central volcanic feature surrounded by a complex network of fractures. Arachnoids are similar in form but generally smaller than coronae. The radar- bright lines extending for many kilometers beyond the arachnoids may have been caused by an upwelling of magma from the interior of Venus, which pushed up the surface to form cracks.
Selu Corona
Located in Lada Terra, Selu Corona measures 350 km (210 mi) in diameter. Coronae are circular to elliptical features marked by a ring of concentric ridges, and are thought to result from the flow of heat in the planet's interior. As hot material rises, it weakens the upper layers of the crust, causing the surface to dome upwards. Then as the region cools, the dome begins to subside. As the upper layers rise and fall, they are subjected to stresses that crack the surface, creating both circular and radial fractures. The black strips represent missing data.
Corona
This region, roughly 100 km (60 mi) on a side, shows a gigantic structure known as a corona. Such features are thought to be the result of hot rising bodies of magma that reach the crust, and cause it to partially melt and collapse, generating volcanic flows and fault patterns that radiate from the central structure. Magellan acquired this view of Venus during its first mapping cycle around the planet in 1990 and 1991.
Sacajawea Patera
Sacajawea Patera is a huge caldera located in western Ishtar Terra. It measures approximately 233 km (140 mi) wide at its base, 1-2 km (0.6 -1.2 mi) deep and 120 by 215 km (74 by 133 mi) in diameter. The caldera is bounded by a zone of graben and fault scarps. Extending up to 140 km (87 mi) in length from the southeast of Sacajawea is a system of linear structures thought to be a flanking rift zone along which the lateral injection and eruption of magma may have occurred.
Domical Hills
Seven circular domes can be seen on the eastern edge of Alpha Regio. They average 25 km (15 mi) in diameter with maximum heights of 750 m (2475 ft). Some scientists believe they are the result of eruptions of thick lava that flowed from a vent on level ground, resulting in an even lateral pattern of lava. The concentric and radial fracture pattern on the surface of the domes suggests that lava welled up inside the domes, causing the surface to stretch.
Ticks
Scientists nicknamed this type of volcano a tick. About 66 km (41 mi) across at the base, this volcano has a flat, concave summit 35 km (22 mi) in diameter. The sides of the volcano are characterized by radiating ridges and valleys. To the west, the rim of the volcano appears to have been breached by dark lava flows that emanated from a shallow summit pit (5.4 km/3.3 mi in diameter) and traveled west along a channel. The black square represents missing data.
Murcury
Mosaic of Mercury
This photomosaic of the planet Mercury was assembled from individual high-resolution images taken by Mariner 10 shortly before closest approach in 1974. The sun is shining from the right, and the terminator is at about 100 degrees west longitude. Crater Kuiper, named after astronomer Gerard P. Kuiper, can be seen just below the center of the planet's illuminated side. The landscape is dominated by large craters and basins with extensive plains between craters.
Caloris Basin
Seen here is part of the enormous Caloris Basin, which is thought to be similar to the large circular basins found on the moon. Probably formed by a giant impact early in Mercury's history, this basin was subsequently filled by lava flows. The nature of the wrinkle ridges on its floor is arguable: some scientists claim tectonics while others suggest they are due to volcanic flows escaping from fractures.
Southwest Mercury
The southwest quadrant of Mercury is seen in this image taken March 29, 1974, by the Mariner 10 spacecraft. The picture was taken four hours before the time of closest approach when Mariner was 198,000 km (122,760 mi) from the planet. The largest craters seen in this picture are about 100 km (62 mi) in diameter.
Hills of Mercury
Weird terrain best describes this hilly, lineated region of Mercury. Scientists note that this area is at the antipodal point to the large Caloris basin. The shock wave produced by the Caloris impact may have been reflected and focused to the antipodal point, thus jumbling the crust and breaking it into a series of complex blocks. The area covered is about 800 km (497 mi) on a side.
Mercury Close Up
The small, bright halo crater (center) is 10 km (6 mi) in diameter. The prominent crater further left, which has a central peak, is 30 km (19 mi) across. The darker, lightly cratered area (upper left) may be an ancient lava flow. Mercury's surface is similar to that of Earth's moon, where a history of heavy cratering is followed by volcanic filling.
Welcome to Planets
This is a collection of many of the best images from NASA's planetary exploration program. The collection has been extracted from the interactive program "Welcome to the Planets" which was distributed on the Planetary Data System Educational CD-ROM Version 1.5 in December 1995. It has also been updated with the addition of more recent images. Please note: This collection replaces the former on-line version of Welcome to the Planets. Internal links within this site are not identical to the old site, so please adjust any links to this site accordingly.Understanding mineralogy of carbon capture and storage through near infrared spectroscopy
Carbon capture and storage, or geosequestration of carbon dioxide, has been proposed to reduce the greenhouse effect of increased carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. New findings published in the latest edition* of the Journal of Near Infrared Spectroscopy reveal a way to identify and classify the carbonate rocks which would be produced if liquefied CO2 is pumped below the earth’s surface.
Carbon capture and storage, or geosequestration of carbon dioxide, has been proposed to reduce the greenhouse effect of increased carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. New findings published in the latest edition* of the Journal of Near Infrared Spectroscopy reveal a way to identify and classify the carbonate rocks which would be produced if liquefied CO2 is pumped below the earth’s surface. Geosequestration involves locking the carbon dioxide in the form of minerals such as smithsonite and magnesium carbonate minerals. Near infrared spectroscopy offers a means of identifying such minerals and may be employed remotely.
The carbonate rocks, such as smithsonites, include some of the most highly coloured and prized precious gem stones. “Here at the Queensland University of Technology we set out to understand the basis of the colour changes in carbonate rocks”, project leader Professor Ray Frost said. “We now understand the significance of very small changes in trace elements (some may call them impurities).” Near infrared spectroscopy is a scientific tool which has helped us understand the colours in these minerals and may be employed to study the colour in gems and jewellery.
The present paper, the sixth in a series on carbonate minerals, employed NIR spectroscopy to reveal differences in mineralogy and mineral composition which related to the origins of the samples. Ray Frost, together with his students and collaborators, are developing the technique of infrared spectroscopy for the study and identification of minerals. Such a study also has relevance to the identification of minerals on Mars and other planets and their moons.
Understanding the matter which makes up our solar system has challenged scientists for centuries. “We are now a step closer to being able to identify which minerals occur on Mars and other planets in the solar system,” Professor Frost said.
These latest studies were undertaken in collaboration with visiting scientist Professor B.J. Reddys at the Queensland University of Technology.
“Here on earth we will be now be able to use visible–near infrared spectroscopy in combination with multispectral remote sensing to greatly enhanced the accuracy of geological mapping,” Professor Frost said. Such remote sensing can be carried out from the air, or even from space.
In the spectra of smithsonite minerals, the main peaks relate, in addition to the anions of OH– and CO32– to Fe and Cu. The effects of structural cations substitution (Ca2+, Fe2+, Cu2+, Cd2+ and Zn2+) on band shifts in the electronic spectral region of 11,000 to 7500 cm–1 (910 to 1330 nm) and vibrational modes of OH– and CO32– anions in the 7300 to 4000 cm–1 (1370 to 2500 nm) region were used to distinguish between the smithsonites.
About Journal of Near Infrared Spectroscopy
The Journal of Near Infrared Spectroscopy (JNIRS) is a peer review journal published by IM Publications (www.impublications.com). It publishes high-quality, original research papers on all aspects of near infrared (NIR) spectroscopy and technology. NIR spectroscopy is used widely in the food and agriculture, pharmaceutical and chemical industries, and is finding increasing applications in other areas including medicine and the environment.
Conformational change of proteins probed by laser spray
Seattle, WA (U.S.A.) --- An exciting scientific breakthrough into protein conformation study through a newly-developed laser spray mass spectrometry was reported by Dr. Xianggguo Shi at Yokohama University (Japan) and coworkers last month.
Laser spray, developed by Dr. Shi’s collaborator Prof. Hiraoka at Yamanshi University, is a hybrid of three basic techniques for the generation of gaseous ions from the condensed phase. Laser spray mass spectrometry can faithfully reflect the solution-phase characteristics of biomolecules. Dr. Shi and coworkers have successfully applied laser spray to evaluate the binding affinities of protein-DNA and drug-DNA complexes, which is a topic of importance and challenge in biophysics and medical chemistry.
One of the advantages of laser spray in the analysis of biomolecules is its convenience. Laser spray provides information on the stability of biomolecules instantly just by tuning the laser power. In this recent work, published in the April 2008 issue of Rapid Commun Mass Spectrom, Dr. Shi investigated whether laser spray could be employed to analyze the thermal stability and folding transitions of proteins quantitatively. Horse heart cytochrome c (cyt c, Protein Data Bank (PDB) ID: 1HRS) is a small heme protein, whose molecular weight is 12,365, with 104 amino acid residues and plays an important role in transferring electrons in the respiratory chain. In the reported study, they used cyt c as a model protein to establish the methodology in the conformational study. The stability of horse heart cytochrome c and bovine ubiquitin was evaluated by laser spray and compared in this study.
Researchers found that laser spray mass spectrometry enables much faster and more convenient monitoring of conformational changes of cyt c than does conventional electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS). Laser spray mass spectra of cyt c at various pH were obtained at different levels of laser power. Bimodal charge-state distributions of the protein were observed in laser spray mass spectra, indicating the two-state model of structural change; the lower charges correspond to the folded state, the higher charges to the unfolded state. The results from laser spray mass spectrometry correlated well with circular dichroism (CD) experiments under relatively acidic conditions, which destabilize the protein. The thermal stabilities of ubiquitin and cyt c prepared in solutions at the same pH were also easily differentiated by corresponding laser power. Their exciting studies indicate that laser spray mass spectrometry could be a versatile method for rapid evaluation of the thermal stability of proteins, and for observation of conformational changes by a simple tuning of the laser power.
ESI-MS, developed by John B. Fenn, was used to identify and analyze biological macromolecules in the past decade. Dr. Fenn was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2002 for the contribution in the development of ESI-MS in the biological application. Laser spray mass spectrometry was developed based on ESI-MS, yet Dr. Shi’s groundbreaking research strongly supports that laser spray offers greater advantage than does ESI-MS in the study of the binding affinity of biomolecular complexes and conformational study of proteins. More importantly, laser spray could reflect faithfully the biophysical characteristics of biomolecules, such as binding affinities. These discoveries confirmed that laser spray is a new powerful method to screen drug candidates such as antibiotics and anticancer drugs. This new mass spectrometry technique may win the Nobel Prize for its inventor and his coworkers in the future. We look forward to the new and exciting scientific discoveries from the further development and application of laser spraGPS Navigation Devices Can Be Spoofed, Counter Measures Not Effective In Certain Cases
Just like flat-screen televisions, cell phones and computers, global positioning system (GPS) technology is becoming something people can't imagine living without. So if such a ubiquitous system were to come under attack, would we be ready?
It's an uncomfortable question, but one that a group of Cornell researchers have considered with their research into "spoofing" GPS receivers.
GPS is a U.S. navigation system of more than 30 satellites circling Earth twice a day in specific orbits, transmitting signals to receivers on land, sea and in air to calculate their exact locations. "Spoofing," a not-quite-technical term first coined in the radar community, is the transmission of fake GPS signals that receivers accept as authentic ones.
The Cornell researchers, after more than a year of building equipment and experimenting in Rhodes Hall, presented a paper on their findings at a meeting of the Institute of Navigation, Sept. 19 in Savannah, Ga.
To demonstrate how a navigation device can be fooled, the researchers, led by Cornell professors Paul Kintner and Mark Psiaki, programmed a briefcase-size GPS receiver, used in ionospheric research, to send out fake signals.
Paper co-authors Brent Ledvina, Cornell Ph.D. '07 and now an assistant professor of electrical and computer engineering at Virginia Tech, and first author Todd Humphreys, Cornell Ph.D. '07, described how the "phony" receiver could be placed in the proximity of a navigation device, where it would track, modify, and retransmit the signals being transmitted from the GPS satellite constellation. Gradually, the "victim" navigation device would take the counterfeit navigation signals for the real thing.
Handheld GPS receivers are popular for their usefulness in navigating unfamiliar highways or backpacking into wilderness areas. But GPS is also embedded in the world's technological fabric. Such large commercial enterprises as utility companies and financial institutions have made GPS an essential part of their operations.
"GPS is woven into our technology infrastructure, just like the power grid or the water system," said Kintner, Cornell professor of electrical and computer engineering and director of the Cornell GPS Laboratory. "If it were attacked, there would be a serious impact."
By demonstrating the vulnerability of receivers to spoofing, the researchers believe they can help devise methods to guard against such attacks.
"Our goal is to inspire people who design GPS hardware to think about ways to make it so the kinds of things we're showing can be overcome," said Psiaki, Cornell professor of mechanical and aerospace engineering.
The idea of GPS receiver spoofing isn't new; in fact, the U.S. government addressed the issue in a December 2003 report detailing seven "countermeasures" against such an attack.
But, according to the researchers, such countermeasures would not have successfully guarded against the signals produced by their reprogrammed receiver.
"We're fairly certain we could spoof all of these, and that's the value of our work," Humphreys said.
New Technology For Navigating Without GPS
Today merchant marine, military, and recreational boat traffic all rely on the global satellite system GPS to determine their position at sea. But sometimes information from the system is incorrect. Poor visibility or lax attention can then spell disaster.
GPS can be jammed, either unintentionally or intentionally. Signals from the satellites can be interfered with by ice build-up on the vessel's antennas, by other communication equipment, or by physical obstacles. Submarines cannot usually use the system.
Doctoral student Rickard Karlsson at the Center for Control and Communication describes in his thesis how modern, simulation-based methods of treating signals can be used to monitor and, if necessary, to take over the GPS function on a vessel.
This technology, unique in the world, requires no external infrastructure and is not susceptible to interference. Instead, the vessel's own radar is used to measure the distance to surrounding shores, and this data is then compared with a digital sea chart. In a submarine, information from sonar equipment is compared with a digital depth chart. In combination with data about the movement of the vessel, the correct position can be calculated.
The method is based on a mathematical algorithm, a so-called particle filter, which is installed as a program in the vessel's computer system. There is no need for any further hardware to be installed beyond what is already on board. Preliminary trials show that the method works just as well as GPS in navigating an archipelago.
The dissertation Particle Filtering for Positioning and Tracking Applications deals with several other uses of the same principle: positioning industrial robots, tracking vehicles from another vehicle to avoid collisions, and tracking boats and ships from an airplane.
Computer-Assisted Navigation Positioning Systems Help Orthopedic Surgeons Perfect Minimally Invasive Joint Replacement Surgery
The image-guided navigation system is similar to the location and directional tracking systems used for cars and ships today -- it is, in effect, a global positioning system (GPS) for the surgeon. Informative positioning calculations are displayed on a graphically intuitive screen, which dynamically changes with the individual patient's anatomy.
Orthopedic implant developer, Zimmer Inc. and navigation technologies developer, Medtronic Surgical Navigation Technologies have teamed up to offer this solution in the United States at Rush. Orthopedic surgeons at Rush have been leaders in the introduction of minimally-invasive surgical (MIS) joint replacement in the U.S. and plan to adopt surgical navigation into their MIS procedures in the near future.
This technology superimposes the position of the instruments as they are used in surgery onto images of the anatomy displayed on a monitor. Much as the driver of a car uses the GPS system to find the way on the road, the surgeon depends on these images to confirm the position of their instruments in relation to the patient's anatomy.
The image-guided surgery (IGS) camera works like the satellite that detects signals from cars, boats, and other vehicles equipped with special tracking devices. As the surgeon moves an instrument within the patient's joint, the IGS camera, like the GPS satellite, calculates its position, and then transfers that data to a computer in the operating room. The computer then shows the direction and location of the instrument .
Rush orthopedic surgeon Dr. Mitchell Sheinkop has introduced a universal navigation system in conventional knee replacement surgeries, and will train other orthopedic surgeons using this new computer-assisted navigation system.
Sheinkop did the first minimally invasive surgical unicompartmental (partial) Zimmer knee replacement in the U.S in 2001. Since then, Sheinkop and his colleagues at Rush has have pioneered the minimally invasive hip and total knee replacement surgeries, without navigation.
Minimally invasive surgery orthopedic surgery involves the use of specially developed instrumentation and new surgical techniques. Because MIS surgery uses small punctures in the skin compared to long incisions that cut muscle tissue, blood loss during surgery is minimized, the hospital stay is shortened, pain is reduced and patients can return to a normal lifestyle much more quickly.
"For the surgeon, minimally invasive joint replacement surgery is difficult and time consuming to learn, even for surgeons who do 200 or more joint replacements a year," said Sheinkop. "MI surgery has unique demands of component alignment, positioning and soft tissue balance."
"This navigation system can allow more orthopedic surgeons to learn MI joint replacement surgical techniques and have excellent patient outcomes," he said. "Computer-assisted surgery provides a visual confirmation and verification for the surgeon and enables a more precise implantation. This will help make true minimally invasive surgical joint replacement available to patients throughout the country."
While other navigation systems exist for orthopedic surgery, Sheinkop prefers the Zimmer-specific solution for minimally invasive surgery because it customized to measure implant size, as well as detail the shape, fit, and fill of the patient's joint location. Implant-specific navigation solutions are tailored and customized to meet the needs of a particular prosthesis or system, in this case, Zimmer orthopedic implants.
The implant-specific platform allows elimination of instrumentation; it reduces costs, inventory, and complications, he said. Soon, Sheinkop will begin working with the navigated Zimmer-specific, MIS 2-incision hip solution.
Sheinkop estimates that in five years, most orthopedic procedures will be aided by navigation.
According to the American Academy of Orthopedic Surgery, total knee arthroplasty (replacement) is a surgery performed for severe degeneration of the knee joint. More than 300,000 people a year undergo the procedure. Minimally invasive total knee arthroplasty is a method of performing knee replacement through an incision that is only three and a half to four inches long, with potentially less damage to the tissue around the knee.
Robot Assisted Surgery More Accurate Than Conventional Surgery
A new study from Imperial College London shows that robot assisted knee surgery is significantly more accurate than conventional surgery.
The team of surgeons tested whether Acrobot, a robotic assistant, could improve surgical outcomes for patients undergoing partial knee replacement. Acrobot works by helping the surgeon to line up the replacement knee parts with the existing bones.
The surgeons looked at 27 patients undergoing unicompartmental knee replacement. The patients were separated into two groups as part of a randomised controlled trial, with 14 having conventional surgery, and the remaining 13 having robot assisted surgery.
Although the operations took a few minutes longer using the robotic assistant, the replacement knee parts were more accurately lined up than in conventional surgery. All of the robotically assisted operations lined up the bones to within two degrees of the planned position, but only 40 percent of the conventionally performed cases achieved this level of accuracy.
The team found there were no additional side effects from using robot assisted surgery, and recovery from surgery was quicker in most cases.
Professor Justin Cobb, from Imperial College London, who led the research team, said: "These robots are designed to hold the surgeon's hand in the operating theatre, not take over the operation. This study shows they can be an enormous help, preventing surgeons from making mistakes. More importantly, by showing how the increased accuracy makes a difference to how well a knee works after surgery, we will be able to develop a new generation of less invasive procedures without the risks of error, providing faster recovery and better functional outcomes for patients."
The study involved both surgeons and engineers from Imperial College, with medical robotics engineers designing the Acrobot prototype, and surgeons testing it.
Professor Cobb added: "This study could have important implications for not just surgery, but also for health economics. By improving the accuracy of surgery, and ultimately improving the outcome for patients, we can make sure the knee replacements work better and last longer, preventing the need for additional surgery."
Biomedical Engineers 'Arm' Surgeons For Highly Precise Knee Resurfacing With Robot
The Science of Saving Art: Can Microbes Protect Masterpieces?
Art conservationists, curators and scientists from around the world are gathering this week in Caracas, Venezuela, to address some of the burgeoning concerns about the state of art and artifact collections around the world–particularly those in tropical climes, which are under assault from mold, fungus and insects. At the Forum on Cultural Heritage Conservation, researchers are highlighting the many macro-abilities of microorganisms in the art world, which range from detecting whether a gallery's air quality might be harmful to delicate objects d'arts to actually cleaning a dirty piece with helpful bacteria.
"Science has finally set a solid foot in the art world," says José Luis Ramirez, co-author of a 2005 study of the use of biotechnology in art preservation and director of the United Nations University's Program for Biotechnology for Lain America and the Caribbean (BIOLAC), which is an interdisciplinary school that promotes the use of biotechnology in fields from agriculture to manufacturing.
This event, which is sponsored by the U.N. and the Cultural Heritage Conservation Foundation (a nonprofit that promotes conservation), is convening with a packed house at the Institute of Advanced Studies in Caracas. This year's focus is on conservation of entire collections, many of which, Alvaro Gonzalez, director of Venezuela's Cultural Heritage Conservation Foundation, described in a statement, as being in "a state of emergency."
The current and future conditions of many tropical collections worry Ramirez, who notes that the climate in countries like Venezuela is "good for the number of species but bad for the number of pests." Unlike a typical North American museum, many institutions in Latin and South America are not equipped with air conditioners or other climate controls to regulate temperature and humidity. And as Ramirez notes, such basics have become even more rare in today's darkening financial landscape. "When you have an economy in trouble," he laments, "the first victim is the culture."
Nieves Valentine Rodrigo, a researcher at the Instituto de Patrimonio Cultural de España in Madrid, has found that certain microorganisms can be used to test for a host of possible threats to a collection, including humidity, air pollution, dust levels and even the impact of daily visitor foot traffic.
Although prevention is the theme of this year's forum, some researchers will present techniques for cleaning and restoring work that has already been damaged. More traditional methods, such as chemical pesticides and physical cleaning, can damage artwork and pose potential risks for people and the environment. "People have to find ways to counteract the pests using more gentle ways," says Ramirez. But advances in biotechnology have begun to give some conservators hope in mitigating the damage.
Giancarlo Ranalli, an Italian researcher in Pesche, Italy, and a presenter at the forum, has already used bacteria to clean the base of Michelangelo's Pietà Rondanini in Milan and another kind of bacteria to remove harmful animal glue from frescos in Pisa. Ramirez also describes the use of forensic DNA techniques to identify burrowing insects in wooden pieces from just minuscule droppings or a tiny body part so that the precise species can be identified and properly eradicated, as well as the use of a process called biomineralization in which microbes, introduced to a crack in a stone sculpture, will deposit a calcium carbonate that picks up the color of the original while filling the gap.
A key to all of these techniques is careful observation during–and gentle cleaning after–treating a piece with any microorganisms, notes Ranalli in a paper set to be presented at the conference.
Ramirez says he's excited about the interest in the forum, noting that he had to cap enrollment year after being "overwhelmed by people." This is the fourth annual forum and is set to run through Thursday.
Nine-year-old writes hit iPhone app
You might think you're pretty hot stuff because you've figured out how to change your Facebook status from your iPhone, but you've got nothing on nine-year-old Lim Ding Wen. This young prodigy from Singapore is fluent in six programming languages, according to a BBC report this week, and his newest creation, an iPhone drawing game called Doodle Kids, has racked up over 4,000 downloads in just two weeks. He wrote it for his younger sisters, who love to draw.
Doodle Kids, which lets players sketch with their fingers on the iPhone's screen and shake it, Etch-A-Sketch-style, to clear, has already racked up a healthy three-and-a-half star rating on the App Store. One reviewer commented: "Awesome app!...Amazing that something like this was made by a 9 year old".
Monday, February 9, 2009
Definition
Defining precisely which films belong to the science fiction genre is often difficult, as there is no universally accepted definition of the genre, or in fact its underlying genre in literature. According to one definition:
Science fiction film is a film genre which emphasizes actual, extrapolative, or speculative science and the empirical method, interacting in a social context with the lesser emphasized, but still present, transcendentalism of magic and religion, in an attempt to reconcile man with the unknown (Sobchack 63).
This definition assumes that a continuum exists between (real-world) empiricism and (supernatural) transcendentalism, with science fiction film on the side of empiricism, and horror film and fantasy film on the side of transcendentalism. However, there are numerous well-known examples of science fiction horror films, epitomized by such pictures as Frankenstein and Alien. And the Star Wars films blend elements typical of science fiction film (such as spaceships, androids and ray guns) with the mystical "Force", a magical power that would seem to fit the fantasy genre better than science fiction. Film critics therefore sometimes use terms like "Sci Fi/Horror" or "Science Fantasy" to indicate such films' hybrid status.
The visual style of science fiction film can be characterized by a clash between alien and familiar images. This clash is implemented when alien images become familiar, as in A Clockwork Orange, when the repetitions of the Korova Milkbar make the alien decor seem more familiar. As well, familiar images become alien; for example, in Dr. Strangelove, the distortion of the humans make the familiar images seem more alien. Finally, alien and familiar images are juxtaposed, as in The Deadly Mantis, when a giant praying mantis is shown climbing the Washington Monument.
Cultural theorist Scott Bukatman has proposed that science fiction film allows contemporary culture to witness an expression of the sublime, be it through exaggerated scale, apocalypse (Independence Day) or transcendence (2001: A Space Odyssey).[citation needed]
History
Main article: History of science fiction films
1900–1920s
Metropolis, an early example of the genre that remains influential
Science fiction films appeared early in the silent film era, typically as short films shot in black and white, sometimes with colour tinting. They usually had a technological theme and were often intended to be humorous. In 1902, Georges Méliès released Le Voyage dans la Lune, often considered the first sci fi movie and a film that used early trick photography effects to depict a spacecraft’s journey to the moon. Several films merged the science-fiction and horror genres, such as Frankenstein (1910), a film adaptation of Mary Shelley's novel, and Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (1912). A longer science fiction film, 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea (1916), was based on Jules Verne’s novel. In the 1920s, European filmmakers tended to use science fiction films for prediction and social commentary, as can be seen in German films such as Metropolis (1926) and Frau im Mon
1930s–1950s
In the 1930s, there were several big budget science fiction films, notably Just Imagine (the first feature length science fiction film by a US studio), the US-made films King Kong (1933) and Lost Horizon (1936) and the British-made Things to Come (1936). Starting in 1934, a number of science fiction comic strips were adapted as serials, notably Flash Gordon and Buck Rogers, both starring Buster Crabbe. These serials, and the comic strips they were based on, helped fix in the mind of the
During the 1950s, public interest in space travel and new technologies revived. While many 1950s science-fiction films were still low-budget B movies, there were several successful films with larger budgets and impressive special effects, notably Destination Moon, The Day the Earth Stood Still, This Island Earth, War of the Worlds and Forbidden Planet. Some of the many B movies are also still of interest today, especially Howard Hawks's The Thing from Another World, Invasion of the Body Snatchers and It Came From Outer Space.
There was a close connection between many films in the science fiction genre and the monster movie, in, for example, Them!, The Beast From 20,000 Fathoms, and The Blob.
Ray Harryhausen began to use stop-motion animation to create special effects for films such as Earth vs. the Flying Saucers (19
1960s
There were relatively few science fiction films in the 1960s, but some of the films transformed science fiction cinema. Stanley Kubrick’s 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968) brought new realism to the genre, with its groundbreaking visual effects and realistic portrayal of space travel and influenced the genre with its epic story and transcendent philosophical scope. Other 1960s films included Planet of the Apes (1968) and Fahrenheit 451 (1966), which provided social commentary, and the campy Barbarella (1968), which explored the sillier side of earlier science fiction. Jean-Luc Godard's French "new wave" film Alphaville (1965) posited a futuristic
1970s-1990
The era of manned trips to the moon in the 1970s saw a resurgence of interest in the science fiction film. Andrei Tarkovsky’s slow-paced Solaris (1972) had visuals and a philosophic scope reminiscent of 2001: A Space Odyssey. Science fiction films from the early 1970s explored the theme of paranoia, in which humanity is depicted as under threat from ecological or technological adversaries of its own creation, such as Silent Running (ecology), Westworld (man vs. robot), THX 1138 (man vs. the state), and Stanley Kubrick's A Clockwork Orange (threat of brainwashing). Conspiracy thriller films of the 1970s included Soylent Green and Futureworld. The science fiction comedies of the 1970s included Woody Allen's Sleeper and John Carpenter's Dark Star.
Star Wars and Close Encounters of the Third Kind, both released in 1977 , were box-office hits that brought about a huge increase in science fiction films. As well, Star Wars helped to blur the distinction between the science fiction, fantasy, and superhero genres. In 1979, Star Trek: The Motion Picture brought the television series to the big screen for the first time, While The Walt Disney Company released The Island at the Top of the World, Escape to Witch Mountain, with its sequel Return from Witch Mountain, The Cat from Outer Space, The Black Hole and TRON. Ridley Scott's films, such as Alien and Blade Runner, presented the future as dark, dirty and chaotic, and depicted aliens and androids as hostile and dangerous. In contrast, Steven Spielberg's E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial, one of the most successful films of the 1980s, presented aliens as benign and friendly.
The big budget adaptations of Frank Herbert's Dune, Alex Raymond's Flash Gordon and Arthur C. Clarke's sequel to 2001, 2010, were box office duds that dissuaded producers from investing in science fiction literary properties. Disney's Tron turned out to be a moderate success. The strongest contributors to the genre during the second half of the 1980s were James Cameron and Paul Verhoeven with The Terminator and RoboCop entries. The Japanese anime film Akira (1988) also had a big influence outside
1990s–2000s
In the 1990s, the emergence of the world wide web and the cyberpunk genre spawned several movies on the theme of the computer-human interface, such as Total Recall (1990), The Lawnmower Man (1992), eXistenZ (1999) and The Matrix (1999). Other themes included disaster movies (e.g., Armageddon and Deep Impact both from 1998), alien invasion (e.g., Independence Day from 1996) and genetic experimentation (e.g., Jurassic Park from 1993 and Gattaca from 1997).
As the decade progressed, computers played an increasingly important role in both the addition of special effects (thanks to Jurassic Park) and the production of films. As software developed in sophistication it was used to produce more complicated effects. It also enabled filmmakers to enhance the visual quality of animation, resulting in films such as Ghost in the Shell (1995) from Japan, and The Iron Giant (1999) and Titan A.E. (2000) from the US.
During the first decade of the 2000s, nd superhero films abounded, as did earthbound SF such as the Matrix trilogy. In 2005, the Star Wars sextet was completed with the darkly-themed Star Wars Episode III: Revenge of the Sith. Science-fiction also returned as a tool for political commentary in films such as A.I. Artificial Intelligence, Minority Report, Sunshine, and Children of Men. A remake of The Day the Earth Stood Still was released in
Imagery
Film theorist Vivian Sobchack argues that science fiction films differ from fantasy films in that while science fiction film seeks to achieve our belief in the images we are viewing, fantasy film instead attempts to suspend our disbelief. The science fiction film displays the unfamiliar and alien in the context of the familiar. Despite the alien nature of the scenes and science fictional elements of the setting, the imagery of the film is related back to mankind and how we relate to our surroundings. While the sf film strives to push the boundaries of the human experience, they remain bound to the conditions and understanding of the audience and thereby contain prosaic aspects, rather than being completely alien or abstract.
Genre films such as westerns or war movies are bound to a particular area or time period. This is not true of the science fiction film. However there are several common visual elements that are evocative of the genre. These include the spacecraft or space station, alien worlds or creatures, robots, and futuristic gadgets. More subtle visual clues can appear with changes the human form through modifications in appearance, size, or behavior, or by means a known environment turned eerily alien, such as an empty city.
Themes, imagery, and visual elements
Science fiction films are often speculative in nature, and often include key supporting elements of science and technology. However, as often as not the "science" in a Hollywood science fiction movie can be considered pseudo-science, relying primarily on atmosphere and quasi-scientific artistic fancy than facts and conventional scientific theory. The definition can also vary depending on the viewpoint of the observer. What may seem a science fiction film to one viewer can be considered fantasy to another.
Many science fiction films include elements of mysticism, occult, magic, or the supernatural, considered by some to be more properly elements of fantasy or the occult (or religious) film. This transforms the movie genre into a science fantasy with a religious or quasi-religious philosophy serving as the driving motivation. The movie Forbidden Planet employs many common science fiction elements, but the film carries a profound message - that the evolution of a species toward technological perfection (in this case exemplified by the disappeared alien civilization called the "Krell") does not ensure the loss of primitive and dangerous urges. In the film this part of the primitive mind manifests itself as monstrous destructive force emanating from the freudian subconscious, or "Id". The Star Wars series employed a magic-like philosophy and ability known as the "Force" (see entry on 'Midi-chlorians'). Chronicles of Riddick (2004) included quasi-magical elements resembling necromancy and elementalism.
Some films blur the line between the genres, such as movies where the protagonist gains the extraordinary powers of the superhero. These films usually employ a quasi-plausible reason for the hero gaining these powers. Yet in many respects the film more closely resembles fantasy than science fiction.
Not all science fiction themes are equally suitable for movies. In addition to science fiction horror, space opera is most common. Often enough, these films could just as well pass as westerns or World War II movies if the science fiction props were removed. Common motifs also include voyages and expeditions to other planets, and dystopias, while utopias are rare.
Milestones of science fiction film special effects include Stanley Kubrick's 2001: A Space Odyssey, Jurassic Park, Alien, Blade Runner, the first three Star Wars films, Terminator 2: Judgment Day and, more recently, The Matrix.
Scientific elements
Peter Sellers as the title character from Dr. Strangelove, a darkly comic example of the "mad scientist" stock character type
While science is a major element of this genre, many movie studios take significant liberties with what is considered conventional scientific knowledge. Such liberties can be most readily observed in films that show spacecraft maneuvering in outer space. The vacuum should preclude the transmission of sound or maneuvers employing wings, yet the sound track is filled with inappropriate flying noises and changes in flight path resembling an aircraft banking. The film makers assume that the audience will be unfamiliar with the specifics of space travel, and focus is instead placed on providing acoustical atmosphere and the more familiar maneuvers of the aircraft.
Similar instances of ignoring science in favor of art can be seen when movies present environmental effects. Entire planets are destroyed in titanic explosions requiring mere seconds, whereas an actual event of this nature would likely take many hours. A star rises over the horizon of a comet or a Mercury-like world and the temperature suddenly soars many hundreds of degrees, causing the entire surface to turn into a furnace. In reality the energy is initially reaching the ground at a very oblique angle, and the temperature is likely to rise more gradually.
The role of the scientist has varied considerably in the science fiction film genre, depending on the public perception of science and advanced technology. Starting with Dr. Frankenstein, the mad scientist became a stock character who posed a dire threat to society and perhaps even civilization. Certain portrayals of the "mad scientist", such as Peter Sellers's performance in Dr. Strangelove, have become iconic to the genre. In the monster movies of the 1950s, the scientist often played a heroic role as the only person who could provide a technological fix for some impending doom. Reflecting the distrust of government that began in the 1960s in the
Alien life forms
Main article: Extraterrestrial life in popular culture
The concept of life, particularly intelligent life, having an extraterrestrial origin is a popular staple of science fiction films. Early films often used alien life forms as a threat or peril to the human race, where the invaders were frequently fictional representations of actual military or political threats on Earth. Later some aliens were represented as benign and even beneficial in nature in such films as Escape to Witch Mountain, Return from Witch Mountain, Race to Witch Mountain, The Cat from Outer Space, E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial, Lifted and Close Encounters of the Third Kind. Aliens in contemporary films are still often depicted as hostile, however, such as those in the Alien series of films.
In order to provide subject matter to which audiences can relate, the large majority of intelligent alien races presented in films have an anthropomorphic nature, possessing human emotions and motivations. Often they will embody a particular human stereotype, such as the barbaric warriors, scientific intellectuals, or priests and clerics. They will frequently appear to be nearly human in physical appearance, and communicate in a common Earth tongue, with little trace of an accent. Very few films have tried to represent intelligent aliens as something utterly different from human kind (e.g. Solaris, Contact).
